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"2-Ancient Rome: The Republic And The Empire"

Rome Tourist Guide History  

2-Ancient Rome: The Republic and the Empire

The city of Rome prospered under monarchic rule until Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Proud) came to power and installed a new form of government: the Republic. Republican rule brought about significant changes in Roman society, which was now divided into two classes, the patricians and the plebeians. The former were the new upper class, made up of privileged professionals such as judges, magistrates and priests. The vast majority of the population, however, fell into the plebeian class; they tended the crops and livestock or worked in commerce.

The two classes functioned within a system of vassalage in which each plebeian served a patrician family. The plebeians swore loyalty to the patrician family in exchange for protection. Every noble family, also known as gens, had several plebeians working for them and therefore functioned much like an independent unit. The entire unit was led by the head of the patrician family and run according to a set of individually tailored codes or laws.

But the social pecking order didn't end there; it extended into a far more detailed and complex hierarchy. A group of gens formed a Curia, a vast extended family that even had its own personal temple and priest. The Curiae would meet in the so-called Assembly of the People, where decisions regarding the development and governing of the city would be made. A voting process determined these decisions, but of course only members of the patrician class were granted this right. There was yet another, parallel governing body - the Senate – which was even more exclusive. It was comprised solely of the heads of the patrician families. Eventually the plebeians achieved a moderate measure of representation through the establishment of the plebeian tribune. This was mostly a symbolic gesture to appease the socially less fortunate since the ruling class had no intention of upsetting its existing social order.   

Although the Republic was still a far cry from our modern understanding of democracy, the Roman Laws that were ceremoniously inscribed on iron tablets in 450 B.C. did provide for several social advancements. For example, the laws permitted the marriage between members of the patrician and plebeian classes, a baby-step towards greater social integration. This was also an era of great urban expansion, witnessing the construction of new buildings, temples and forums (the bustling centres of social and commercial life in Ancient Rome) as well as aqueducts and roads. New social systems developed parallel to this construction boom, including a legal system that bore significant influence on its modern-day counterpart in western society.

Despite the social and political advances that began to distance Rome from the Greek influence that had accompanied the city since the beginning, Rome fell short in developing an equally ambitious industrial and economic system. The city grew accustomed to military victories and living off the spoils of war. And since these victories continued over time, they seemed infinite, enough to last the city long into the future.

Rome's bellicose glory was great indeed and soon began to spread beyond the confines of the Italian peninsula. Carthage was a thorn in Rome's side, hampering its expansionist ambitions. In fact, the Carthaginian general Hannibal served the city a severe blow during the Second Punic War when he crossed Hispania, the Alps and the Apennines and invaded northern Italy with his army of elephants. Despite enduring a series of battles, Hannibal was finally defeated by the Romans, and Carthage fell in 146 B.C.   

As Roman power extended far beyond its borders, a sense of discontent began to spread in the city, a palpable tension that the republican government couldn't seem to suppress. At this point, the government was organised in a structure known as a triumvirate. This triangle of power was formed by Pompey the Great, Marcus Crassus and Julius Caesar and marked the beginning of the end for the Republic.

Crassus died young, leaving Rome in the hands of Pompey and Caesar. While Pompey stayed in Rome, Caesar set out to conquer Gaul. The campaign was a significant success for Rome, but it created an irrevocable sense of distrust between Caesar and Pompey. Pompey was suspicious and jealous of Caesar's military glory, which garnered him public support and admiration. Meanwhile, Caesar worried about the distance that his military campaigns drove between him and Rome. Afraid of losing his power and uneasy about Pompey's manoeuvrings in Rome, Caesar tried to bolster his position by buying political support. Caesar's fears were not unwarranted; Pompey had no intention of sharing his newly amassed power. While Caesar was away, Pompey made every effort to block his return. Caesar, who was in Egypt at the time, had fallen hopelessly in love with the young queen Cleopatra, a romantic entanglement that delayed his trip back to Rome. When he did finally return, it was in the company of Cleopatra and their son - and he was met with an outburst of popular support. War seemed like the only way to resolve the dispute between Caesar and Pompey; a war that the latter lost in 48 B.C. Although Caesar's official title became dictator vitalicio (dictator for life), he now ruled like a king.

The Senate did not look kindly upon Caesar's rule, jealous of how he had weakened their power. Caesar was assassinated in 44 B.C. and a new triumvirate came to power. Caesar had left his fortune and title to his grand-nephew Gaius Octavius (Octavian), and the lower and middle classes, angered by the assassination of their popular leader, now shifted their support to his heir. Octavian aligned himself with Lepidus, Caesar's loyal cavalry commander, and Mark Antony. Octavian stayed and oversaw affairs in Rome whilst Lepidus marched off to Africa and Mark Antony, who had fallen in love with Cleopatra, followed her to Egypt and became king of her country. The triumvirate collapsed when yet another power struggle broke out, resulting in a civil war that dragged on until 27 B.C. when Octavian finally defeated his opponents. 

Octavian radically changed the political climate in Rome. He changed his name to Caesar Augustus and proclaimed himself emperor of what was now the Roman Empire, an act that ushered in a long and eagerly awaited period of peace. Peacetime brought about a climate of creativity and innovation that resulted in magnificent works of art and architecture. Some of the most important historical buildings stem from this era. Upon looking onto the flourishing city, Augustus supposedly said, "I found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble". Several pieces, such as the Ara Pacis Augustae, are still standing today, testimony to a truly glorious chapter in the history of the Roman Empire.

Subsequent chapters in the long life of the Empire wavered between peaceful and prosperous and decadent and destructive. Emperor Nero will be forever linked with the Empire's descent into decadence. After burning the entire city to the ground, he committed suicide in 64 A.D. But the Empire had a seemingly inexhaustible supply of second chances; a scant five years later, the city was back on its feet again, constructing the monumental Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Coliseum. Emperor Vespasian was responsible for building the giant arena as well as other landmarks, such as the Arch of Titus in the Forum. The Roman Empire reached the pinnacle of its glory between the years 96 and 211 A.D. under the rule of emperors such as Hadrian, who built the famous city walls, and Marcus Aurelius, who won decisive battles along the Danube.

Rome was the shining capital of the world, unmatched in its glory. There were few hints that augured the destruction that was slowly closing in. The Empire's decline began in the year 235 A.D. when both Persian and Germanic invasions shook Rome's foundations. The invasions proved that this seemingly invincible empire was vulnerable and that it was beginning to crumble. The years between 250 and 312 A.D. were marked by the vicious persecution of Christians, a practice that didn't end until 330 A.D. This was the year that Constantine defeated Maxentius and became the empire's first Christian ruler. Constantine brought an end to a long chapter in Roman history and changed the empire forever. He abandoned Rome and moved the empire's nexus to Byzantium. The city was renamed Constantinople and became the capital of a new empire.

Rome's power crumbled, defeated as much by internal divisions as it was by the relentless Germanic invasions. The Roman Empire finally collapsed in 476 A.D. and most of its territory came under the rule of the Germanic kings.